For this purpose, we chose six respiratory genes (CIT1, MDH1, KGD2, NDI1, SDH2 and COX6) alongside the MAL11 and MAL12 genes.

A simple redox reaction is the ionic bonding of salt (NaCl), where a sodium loses an electron to chlorine generating a positive charged sodium and a negatively charged chlorine. The lag time is manifested by the delayed increase in cell density after glucose periods. We suggest that the native topology of DPO4 leads to a trade-off between fast, stable folding and tight functional DNA binding. Each horizontal line represents one microcolony, with the x-axis representing time after the shift to maltose. Specifically, we find that during the switch from glucose to an alternative sugar such as maltose, cells need to activate respiratory metabolism. By saving energy, the plant decreases the demand for respiratory oxygen consumption that could help to postpone or even prevent the tissue from becoming anoxic. Previous studies focused on the effect that feeding of different sugars had on the respiration rate of tissue slices (Loef et al., 2001) or used transgenic approaches to stimulate metabolism by introducing a more energy-consuming route of Suc degradation via invertase in growing tubers (Bologa et al., 2003). The wild-type strain adapted to maltose growth was transferred to glucose for different times (0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 hr) before switching it back to maltose. Bars represent the mean of at least three measurements ± se. During this period, some cells from the opposite mating types would mate.

Therefore, the observed correlation after pre-growth in maltose seems to only reflect the number of generations of growth in glucose. The expression levels of these proteins have been shown to correlate with the degree of respiration (Fendt and Sauer, 2010). Because all prominent fermentative pathways use pyruvate as initial substrate, the glycolytic flux is maintained or even increased to secure ATP production via glycolysis. It can also be excluded that the rate of oxygen diffusion through the tissue becomes limiting at low external oxygen concentrations in the medium, as similar oxygen consumption curves were observed for pea roots (diameter approximately 2 mm; Fig. In a parallel experiment, ethanol production by the two wild-type accessions was determined (D) by measuring ethanol leakage into liquid incubation medium surrounding the seedlings, which was either aerated with ambient air, or with air containing 1% (v/v) oxygen. MAL gene induction dynamics after a glucose-to-maltose shift coincide with the resumption of rapid growth (Figure 3B). Several studies showed that energy-consuming metabolic pathways are adjusted to the actual oxygen availability (for review, see Geigenberger, 2003; Bailey-Serres and Voesenek, 2008). 2) Les fermentations sont des transformations biologiques. NADH is like a loaded spring. This implies that cells demonstrating higher respiration activity while growing on glucose would have shorter lag times upon a shift to maltose or galactose. When the same population is returned to glucose and subsequently switched back to galactose, the GAL induction rate and growth response is significantly faster. Therefore, the alternative pathway of respiration via AOX has a lower potential to produce ATP from oxygen than the COX pathway has. Similar mechanism of inherited bistability is shown in the Lac operon of E. coli (Novick and Weiner, 1957; Ozbudak et al., 2004). Additionally, the plant internal oxygen concentrations were verified, using a self-made laser-based apparatus for miniaturized optical oxygen measurements. Interestingly, the biphasic characteristic shape of the kinetic curves is independent of the substrate being added to the medium (Fig. Similarly, prolonged changes in blood glucose levels linked to dietary changes may affect muscle and adipose tissue development, even in a next generation that has never been directly exposed to the nutritional stress (Sharples et al., 2016). We have now added validation of the BAR-Seq by making new strains and testing three of the hits (Figure 4—figure supplement 6). An overexpression strain of HAP4 showing increased respiratory capacity was compared to the wild-type.

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